81 Facts About Domitian

Domitian had a minor and largely ceremonial role during the reigns of his father and brother.

Significant wars were fought in Britain, where his general Agricola attempted to conquer Caledonia, and in Dacia, where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus.

Domitian's reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials.

Domitian was succeeded the same day by his advisor Nerva.

Domitian had an older sister, Domitilla the Younger, and brother, named Titus Flavius Vespasianus.

For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives.

Domitian received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying rhetoric and literature.

Unlike his brother Titus, Domitian was not educated at court.

Domitian was tall of stature, with a modest expression and a high colour.

Domitian's eyes were large, but his sight was somewhat dim.

Domitian was handsome and graceful too, especially when a young man, and indeed in his whole body with the exception of his feet, the toes of which were somewhat cramped.

Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness, which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs.

Historian Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources.

Domitian appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father.

Domitian was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimes self-deprecating sense of humour, and often communicated in cryptic ways.

In Rome, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against Flavian aggression.

Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters, Cornelius Primus.

Domitian received the title of Caesar and was appointed praetor with consular power.

Domitian's authority was merely nominal, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years.

Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own.

When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours.

In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia, but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself.

In 80, Domitia and Domitian's only attested son was born.

For reasons unknown, Domitian briefly exiled Domitia, and then soon recalled her, either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia.

The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives.

Domitian held six consulships during Vespasian's reign but only one of these, in 73, was an ordinary consulship.

Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven.

Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying, instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor.

Domitian became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.

Above all Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family, whom he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy.

The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital.

Domitian toured the European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum, conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire.

The Stadium of Domitian was dedicated in 86 AD as a gift to the people of Rome as part of an Imperial building program, following the damage or destruction of most of the buildings on the Field of Mars by fire in 79 AD.

In Egypt too, Domitian was quite active in constructing buildings and decorating them.

Domitian appears, together with Trajan, in offering scenes on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera.

Domitian's cartouche appears in the column shafts of the Temple of Khnum at Esna.

The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated.

Much more than a renovation project, Domitian's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance.

The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill, said to have been covered with a gilded roof.

Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes.

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.

Domitian founded a new legion in 82, the Legio I Minervia, to fight against the Chatti.

Domitian is credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman military presence, the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-day Azerbaijan.

Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory.

Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for", and a "mock triumph".

Domitian fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries.

Domitian had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest.

In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era.

Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germania.

Domitian was offered the governorship of the province of Africa but declined it, either due to ill health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian.

Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province.

The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river.

Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus.

Domitian divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube.

Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians, and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia.

Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion, and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign.

Domitian revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian.

Once again, Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully, and with care.

Domitian renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis, under which adultery was punishable by exile.

Domitian heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected.

Domitian ensured that libellous writings, especially those directed against himself, were punishable by exile or death.

Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero.

Domitian was not so subtle, often coming to the Senate as a triumpher and conqueror to show his distain for them.

Domitian disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate to reduce its control to an administrative one, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state.

Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion.

Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family, Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul.

Domitian used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate, since when they discovered a conspiracy, no one believed them unless they had been murdered.

Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments.

Domitian announced that she had been disarmed by Jupiter and could no longer give Domitian her protection.

Domitian's body was carried away on a common bier and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis.

Cassius Dio, writing nearly a hundred years later, suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius implies it was a well-organized conspiracy, citing Stephanus' feigned injury and claiming that the doors to the servants' quarters had been locked prior to the attack and that a sword Domitian kept concealed beneath his pillow as a last line of personal protection against a would-be assassin, had been removed beforehand.

Domitian was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.

The classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations.

The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor Hadrian.

When Domitian found out, he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife, with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled, Domitian took Julia as his mistress, who later died during a failed abortion.

Hostile views of Domitian had been propagated until archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny.

Domitian concludes that Domitian was a ruthless but efficient autocrat.

Domitian's harshness was limited to a highly vocal minority, who exaggerated his despotism in favor of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty that followed.

Domitian deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements.

Domitian started several major construction projects in Rome including the Aqua Traiana and the Baths of Trajan.

Domitian became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials.